Updated Dec 02, 2024
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Theatre emerged from rituals, ceremonies and myths. Early societies would practice rituals related to three basic concerns: pleasure, power, and duty. Groups and group leaders would conduct ceremonies to guarantee a successful crop or to please the gods. Usually, these societies also had rituals that glorified supernatural powers, victories, and heroes. Supernatural forms would be represented using costumes and masks. Rituals that were practiced as a duty to the gods also brought entertainment and pleasure.
These rituals were accompanied by myths. The myths became a part of the storytelling tradition, gaining a life beyond the original rites. This new life allowed the myths to move towards entertainment and the aesthetic. Today, these stories are performed in plays all around the world.
In the West, Greek drama is known to be the earliest form of theatre.
In 468, Sophocles defeated the first of the three great Greek tragedians, Aeschylus, in a dramatic competition. Sophocles was best known for his writings about Oedipus, the mythological figure who proved central to psychologist Sigmund Freud and the history of psychoanalysis. During his long life, Sophocles earned many prizes, including about 20 for 1st place.
Greek theatre refers to productions staged in Athens during the 5th century B.C. It began as a religious celebration and morphed into a form of entertainment.
The most common types of Greek drama were comedies and tragedies. Comedies have a light tone and concentrate mostly on domestic situations, exaggerated characters, nonsensical plots, and sensuality. Tragedies had a serious tone, generally contained at least one death, and explored psychological states and moral dilemmas.
The first plays were performed with just one actor (called a protagonist) and a chorus of people who helped him to tell the story. The chorus was a major part of Greek drama and consisted of between 5 and 50 actors. However, throughout the 5th century B.C., playwrights continued to innovate.
The playwright Aeschylus added a second speaking role, called the antagonist, and reduced the chorus from 50 to 12. His play 'The Persians', first performed in 472 B.C., is the oldest surviving of all Greek plays.
His pupil, Sophocles, went on to add a third actor, while Euripides added both a prologue, introducing the subject of the play, and the deus ex machina, a divine figure who wrapped up any loose ends at the close.
Greek theatre consisted of lively dancing, bright colours and music, which is why the singing chorus was such a major component of plays during the time. Topics included violence, lust, war, murder, betrayal, ethical and social commentary, and even everyday life.
Costumes in Greek theatre let the audience know a lot about a character (women, slaves and foreigners were not allowed to participate). Costumes were fashioned to identify female characters, high-heeled shoes were worn for tall characters, and the Greeks relied heavily on masks to identify occupations. Masks were also used to change an actor's look because he often portrayed more than one character. In a tragedy, masks were more life-like; in a comedy or satyr play, masks were ugly and grotesque. Masks were constructed out of lightweight materials such as wood, linen, cork, and sometimes real hair.
Actors and playwrights often competed for awards in Greek society. The four most successful playwrights were Aeschylus, Euripides, Aristophanes and Sophocles. Their works are still performed today.
Greek tragedies and comedies were always performed in outdoor theatres. Early theatres were open areas in city centres or next to hillsides where the audience, standing or sitting, could watch and listen to the chorus singing about the exploits of a god or hero.
Orchestra: The orchestra (literally, "dancing space") was normally circular. It was a level space where the chorus would dance, sing, and interact with the actors who were on the stage near the scene.
Theatron: The theatron (literally, "viewing-place") is where the spectators sat.
Skene: The skene (literally, "tent") was the building directly behind the stage. The scene was directly in the back of the stage and was usually decorated as a palace, temple, or other building, depending on the needs of the play. It had at least one set of doors, and actors could make entrances and exits through them.
Parodos: The parodos (literally, "passageways") are the paths by which the chorus and some actors (such as those representing messengers or people returning from abroad) made their entrances and exits. The audience also used them to enter and exit the theatre before and after the performance.
The earliest orchestras were simply made of hard earth, but in the Classical period, some orchestras began to be paved with marble and other materials. In the centre of the orchestra, there was often a thymele or altar. The orchestra of the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens was about 60 feet in diameter.
Throughout the 19th century, Canadian producers, actors and playwrights faced immense competition from foreign touring stars and companies, mainly from Britain and the United States. British and U.S. management acquired controlling interests in Canadian theatres, and as a result, they held a cultural and commercial monopoly on Canada's theatrical growth. While there were Canadian-owned theatre companies, such as the Trans-Canada Theatre Society, in 1915, their purpose was to organize tours by foreign theatre companies.
While Canada was dependent on imported theatre, foreign competition also led to strong nationalist sentiment, which resulted in the development of Canadian professional theatre. In 1946, Dora Mavor Moore founded Toronto's New Play Society, which operated on a professional basis. The New Play Society succeeded in developing Canadian talent in all areas of theatre. Plays by Morley Callaghan, Harry Boyle, and John Coulter, among others, were produced in the theatre of the Royal Ontario Museum. Dora Mavor Moore contributed to the creation of the Stratford Festival, and many New Play Society actors also appeared there.
Canadian theatrical activity in the first half of the 19th century was predominantly amateur. The transition from a predominantly amateur to a predominantly professional theatre began with the founding of the Stratford Festival in 1953. The founding of major regional theatres and government acceptance of a responsibility to fund the arts revitalized professional theatre. This new professional approach to theatre in the 1960s opened a phase of advancement in Canadian theatrical arts of greater scope and intensity than anything previously witnessed in its 350-year history.
The second half of the 20th century was marked in Canada by the development of non-imported professional English-speaking theatre and, more importantly, by a struggle to define both national and regional differences. By the 1990s, 4 categories of production activity existed: a Broadway-style, fully commercial theatre built primarily around musical extravaganzas; a wide range of regional and festival theatres producing a mainstream mix of classics, world hits and original work; a group of "alternate" theatres producing new and often controversial plays; and a radical "fringe" which drew on new writing and performing talent.
Today, with over 168 non-profit companies and a host of independent commercial enterprises, Toronto has emerged as the world's third-largest centre for English-language theatre, behind only London and New York. Canadian theatre continues to gain recognition at home and abroad.
Dora Mavor Moore was a Canadian actress, teacher and director. She was the first Canadian student ever to be accepted at London's Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and graduated in 1912. In 1970, she was made an Officer of the Order of Canada for her contributions to theatre in Canada. The Dora Mavor Moore Award, affectionately known as the Dora Award, is named in her honour. The award is presented annually by the Toronto Alliance for the Performing Arts and honours theatre, dance, and opera productions in Toronto.
The Stratford Festival, formerly known as the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, is an internationally recognized annual celebration of theatre running from April to November in the Canadian city of Stratford, Ontario. The Festival's primary mandate is to present productions of William Shakespeare's plays, but it also produces a wide variety of theatre, from Greek tragedy to contemporary works. The Festival has four permanent venues: the Festival Theatre, the Avon Theatre, the Tom Patterson Theatre, and the Studio Theatre. Inaugurated in 1952, the Festival has been active for 60 years!
Although opposition by the Catholic Church to the public performance of theatre had always been one of the principal obstacles to the development of theatre in French Canada, it was, paradoxically, generally the clergy who, by their encouragement of drama as a pedagogic tool, had also inculcated the knowledge and appreciation of dramatic forms that are prerequisite to the success of a public stage. The birth of contemporary drama in Québec can thus be traced in large part to the clergy, for it was the dedication of dynamic priests such as Émile Legault, Georges-Henri d'Auteuil and Gustave Lamarche that helped rescue theatre from stagnation in the 1930s.
Émile Legault's contribution is more enduring because of his formation (1937-38) of a small company of dedicated amateurs, the Compagnons de Saint-Laurent, and his success in restoring to drama its freshness and magic. He and his group set out to free the stage, to poeticize and refine it.
The most important role of Legault and d'Auteuil was that of inspiring and training future leaders in the renewal of stage arts in French Canada: Jean Gascon, Jean-Louis Roux, Pierre Dagenais, Guy Hoffman and many others. Some went on to found their own professional companies such as Dagenais's l'Équipe (1942) and Roux and Gascon's Théâtre du Nouveau Monde (1951). The Théâtre du Nouveau Monde set professional standards in acting and on stage, as well as set and costume design for a generation, remaining the most stable and influential theatrical company in Québec.
By the time they separated in 1952, the Compagnons had succeeded in forming a large, sensitive and demanding audience capable of appreciating genuine professional skills and talent. In conjunction with the emergence of Montréal as a true metropolis and with the burgeoning self-awareness of the province of Québec, this enthusiasm would lead to the vigorous theatrical activity that characterized the 1960s and 1970s.
Today, Québec's theatre remains vibrant and innovative; its vigour emanates from the current generation of dynamic authors, directors, actors and designers whose talent will certainly ensure the survival of francophone theatre in Canada. Its current openness to texts and troupes from other cultures, such as plays by Strindberg, Goldoni, Schnitzler, Chekhov, Ionesco and Shakespeare (there were 2 translated versions of Macbeth running concurrently in March 2001) is indicative of French theatre‟s longevity.
Émile Legault and Georges-Henri d'Auteuil were catalysts for student troupes in the colleges of Saint-Laurent and Sainte-Marie. Gustave Lamarche was the author-director of about 50 religious and pedagogic plays that caught the attention of students and eventually of Québec's population at large, despite intense continuing competition from radio, cinema and burlesque.
Émile Legault was directly influenced by attempts at revitalizing theatre then current in Europe, where he studied, and in particular by the work of Henri Ghéon and the new theories of stagecraft espoused in France by Jacques Copeau.
Montreal's theatre district called "Quartier des Spectacles" is the scene of performances that are mainly French-language, although the city also boasts a lively Anglophone theatre scene, such as the Centaur Theatre. Large French theatres in the city include Théâtre Saint-Denis, Théâtre du Nouveau Monde, and EXcentris.
Native and Inuit ceremonials and rituals evidenced a highly sophisticated sense of mimetic art and occupied a central place in the social and religious activities of their peoples. Masks, costumes, and properties were used to enhance dialogue, song, and chants in performances designed to benefit the community by influencing crucial matters such as the weather, the hunt, and spiritual and physical well-being.
Although the Forest Theatre at the Six Nations Reserve near Brantford, Ontario, began to produce an annual dramatic pageant in 1948, native theatre only entered the mainstream in the 1970s. Chief Dan George drew attention to the value of theatre as a means of focusing on native problems with his Canadian performance in The Ecstasy of Rita Joe and subsequent Hollywood films.
Early groups specializing in native theatre were the Tillicum Theatre of Nanaimo, British Columbia (1973-75) and the Atchemowin ("storytelling") group in Edmonton (1976). Since 1974, there has been a Native Theatre School in Ontario, which was renamed the Centre for Indigenous Theatre in 1994. The 1980s witnessed the development of indigenous theatre festivals. Indigenous Theatre Festivals were hosted at York University (1980) and at the Curve Lake Reserve near Peterborough, Ontario (1982), attracting first peoples' troupes from around the world. Northern Delights Theatre Company and Sudbury's N'Swakamok Native Players (Ojibwa for "where three roads meet") toured northern Ontario in 1984 and 1985. In 1987, Tomson Highway's Rez Sisters captured a Dora Mavor Moore award for outstanding new play of 1986 in the Toronto area. His sequel, the raw and passionate Dry Lips Oughta Move to Kapuskasing (1989), won the Chalmers and 4 Doras and was shortlisted for a Governor General's Award before touring to the National Arts Centre in 1991 and going on to a 6-week run at the Royal Alexandra.
Native theatre groups have also formed in the North. In Labrador, a Creative Arts Festival involving thousands of students from over 20 communities has been held annually since 1976. One Inuit drama group from the tiny village of Nain in Newfoundland & Labrador, the Nanuksuamiut (People of the Country), have committed themselves to original work and have begun to broadcast radio plays in both Inuktitut and English.
Aboriginal theatre continues to expand and reach mainstream audiences today. Aboriginal playwrights such as Daniel David Moses, Shirley Cheechoo, Floyd Favel and Drew Hayden Taylor have received critical acclaim and recognition, while actors Graham Greene and Gary Farmer have moved on to pursue cinematic careers in Canadian films and Hollywood.
In 1982, Native Earth Performing Arts was established in Toronto. Under the artistic direction of Tomson Highway, the company quickly developed an impressive production history. In 1986, it achieved its first big popular success with The Rez Sisters. Written by Highway, directed by Larry Lewis and choreographed by René Highway, The Rez Sisters garnered both the Dora and Chalmers awards for best new play for its account of a group of passionate bingo players who travel down to Toronto in the hopes of making the big win.
One of the most prolific Aboriginal writers is Daniel David Moses, whose works also include Coyote City (Native Earth, 1988), The Dreaming Beauty (Inner Stage, 1990),
Big Buck City (Cahoots, 1991), and The Moon and Dead Indians (Cahoots, 1993). The Dreaming Beauty, an allegory of the renaissance of Aboriginal cultures combining Iroquoian myth and the tale of Sleeping Beauty, won first prize in the 1990 Canadian National Playwriting Competition.
In a tragedy, there is a tragic hero (protagonist or carrier of the action) who faces an active struggle. He is a noble person but has a “tragic flaw,” such as excessive pride or arrogance, which does not allow him to compromise.
There is usually a moral dilemma or catastrophe, which is caused by the inner dividedness of the protagonist. The antagonist (who opposes the action) in a tragedy is larger than life – gods, ghosts, and "fate." The antagonist complicates the action
and forces the protagonist to act. The hero must accept responsibility for his actions.
Tragedies are characterized by seriousness and traumatic events to evoke pity and fear from the audience. Common usage of “tragedy” refers to any story with a sad ending.
In a comedy, the premise of the story consists of a comic view of life in which characters renew themselves. Comedy is physical and energetic. There is an absence of pain and stability at the end. Comedies are often “moral” in that morally offensive possibilities are hinted at but do not necessarily happen. Comedic plots contain “comic devices” such as exaggeration, incongruity, surprise, repetition, and sarcasm.
There are various types of comedies: situational, character, sentimental, romantic, farce and black/dark. Farce and Black/Dark Comedies are described in more detail below.
Farce is a style of comedy that involves improbable and ridiculous situations, disguise, mistaken identity, verbal humour and a fast-paced plot which gradually increases. The plot usually culminates in a fast chase scene at the end. The characters are essentially foolish.
Examples of television shows based on farcical plots include The Suite Life of Zack & Cody (U.S.) and This Hour Has 22 Minutes (Canada).
Black/Dark comedies are generally funny but end darkly or ironically. In this style, taboo subjects are treated with humour and satire while retaining seriousness. Dark comedies make light of subjects such as murder, terminal illness and war.
Notable writers of Black/Dark comedies include William Faulkner, Mark Twain and Philip Roth.
Melodramatic plays are also known as dramas of disaster. In melodrama, music is heavily used to denote one-dimensional character types. For example, a hero would enter to the sound of trumpets, while the villain would enter to the sound of ominous chords. The emotions and plot/action are emphasized, rather than the characters, in a melodramatic play.
All the significant events of the melodramatic plot are caused by forces outside the protagonist. The protagonist is a victim who is acted upon, whose moral character is not essential to the event, and whose suffering does not imply related guilt or responsibility. Melodrama is full of paranoia. People are alive in a universe of danger. One always knows where one "is" in melodrama. Moral principles are established, as are rules of proper conduct. Punishment fits the crime.
The plot is often divided between good and evil. There is maintenance of self in a hostile world. There can be reordering of one's self in relationship to others, but the primary goal is not self-knowledge and reordering of self to the universe. Melodramas simplify and idealize human experience. All issues are resolved in a well-defined way with little or no shadows or doubts.
A tragicomedy is a tragedy that ends happily. In tragicomedies, the plot thrives in a society which is in a state of flux. The focus is on character relationships. Tragicomedy is non-judgmental. It is a mixed form. It is the most lifelike of the forms. There are no absolutes.
In a docudrama, the dramatization is based on an actual event. Authentic evidence is used to bring historical events to light. Docudramas usually contain facts, quotes from actual sources, and embellishments.
This form of theatre combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance. The story and emotional content of the piece – humour, sorrow, love, anger – are communicated through the words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements of the works. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals.
These plays are written by women, for women, and about women. They deal with women‟s issues such as birth, women‟s rights, motherhood and female friendships. Feminist theatre followed the political feminist movement of 1968 and flourished throughout the 70s and 80s. It called attention to the presence of female voices shaping dramatic literature. Feminist theatre also explores techniques of unmasking gendered identities and stereotypes. It encompasses a wide variety of theatrical practices, from political persuasion techniques and radical performance strategies to experimental playwriting.
This type of theatre is known for its independence from mainstream, high-budget theatre productions. Fringe plays can be satirical, subversive, experimental, radical, and/or concerned with expressing a particular voice, such as feminist, gay, black, poor, and others. Fringe festivals provide venues for productions that have been referred to as alternative theatre.
The contemporary fringe phenomenon began in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1947, a number of performing artists, dissatisfied with what they considered the elitist programming of the Edinburgh International Arts Festival, decided to create an event of their own. They produced their work in empty stores and church basements and promoted themselves in the streets with posters and handbills. This event, literally on the fringes of an established festival, was immediately successful in its own right. The Edinburgh Fringe evolved into an annual international event with a reputation equal to - if not greater than - the "official" Edinburgh Festival.
In Canada, Brian Paisley radically adapted the Edinburgh model and founded the Edmonton Fringe Festival. His festival was unique and significant because there was no established festival with large and already present audiences, nor was there a comparable tradition of independent production and touring among Canadian theatre artists. The first Edmonton Fringe, held in August 1982, had an audience of 7500. By 2009, the Edmonton Fringe could boast of more than 550,000 visitors. Today, recognized internationally as one of the best and most successful fringe theatre festivals in the world and as one of Canada's foremost festivals, the Edmonton International Fringe Theatre Festival attracts artists and patrons from across Canada and around the world.
Director – works to put all theatrical aspects together in order to put on a successful play.
Set Designer – uses props and creates backgrounds to bring scenes to life.
Actor – uses physical and emotional characteristics, along with skills such as singing, dancing, stage combat, etc., to identify a character that he or she is portraying.
Costume Designer – creates and designs appropriate ensembles for each individual character of a cast.
Talent Agent – represents actors/actresses by matching their talents with roles.
Make-up Artist – enhances the physical appearance of a character by applying different types of make-up.
Special Effects Technician – creates sounds and visual effects to make scenes more spectacular.
Hairdresser – styles a character's hair appropriately to fit the role, the setting of the play, and the time period.
Theatre Critic – reviews plays and provides their expert opinions to the public through TV and radio presentations and newspaper and magazine articles.
Professional Singer – entertains others with their appealing singing voice on and off the stage.
Entertainment Lawyer – protects the rights of companies, unions, and artists and uses his or her expert knowledge of the law and persuasion to help their clients achieve their objectives.
Playwright – writes and rewrites the scripts that are used for productions.
Musician – entertains others with their knowledge of and ability to play music; may potentially compose a background score or themed music for productions.
Sound Technician – uses his or her knowledge of sound to make a production audible.
Lighting Technician – assists in all the lighting that goes on during the play; helps to create a specific mood and setting for each scene.
Technical Director – is in charge of all lighting, sound, and stage crews, but
has no say in regard to the actors.
Publicity Crew – uses different advertising techniques to entice an audience.
Stage Manager – is in charge of the actors, including all legal responsibilities; takes over the production after opening night.
Producer – works closely with the director to develop ideas on how to make the production successful and is also responsible for managing the finances and budget for the production.
Established in Montreal in 1960, the National Theatre School of Canada (NTS) offers professional training in English and French in a setting that unites all the theatre arts:
acting, playwriting, directing, set and costume design, and production. Notable alumni of NTS include Colin Fox (actor), John Juliani (director), Sandra Oh (actress), and Hannah Moscovitch (playwright).
Playwright Profile: Tomson Highway
Birthday: December 5, 1951
Place of Birth: Brochet, Manitoba
Tomson Highway is a celebrated Canadian and Cree playwright and novelist. He obtained his B.A. in Honours Music in 1975 and his B.A. in English in 1976, both from the University of Western Ontario. For seven years, Highway worked as a social worker on reserves across Ontario and Canada. Subsequently, he turned the knowledge and experience gained by working in these places into novels and plays that have won him widespread recognition across Canada and around the world.
Famous Works: The Rez Sisters, Dry Lips Oughta Move to
Kapuskasing, Aria, Rose
Director Profile: Katrina Dunn
Place of Birth: Vancouver, British Columbia
Katrina Dunn is a Canadian theatre director and producer. She trained in dance at Simon Fraser University and at the National Theatre School of Canada. In 1997, she
was appointed as Artistic Director of Touchstone Theatre in 1997. Under her direction, Touchstone has developed a focus on Canadian plays. Over a number of years, she has been nominated multiple times for the Jessie Richardson Theatre Awards in several categories. She has won twice for direction: in 2001 for Michael Healey's Kicked and in 2010 (as co-director) for Judith Thompson's Palace of the End.
Famous Works: Cymbeline, Kicked, Palace of the End, Pink
Sugar
Actor Profile: Christopher Plummer
Birthday: December 13, 1929
Place of Birth: Toronto, Ontario
Christopher Plummer is a world-renowned Canadian theatre, film and television actor. Raised and educated in Montréal, Plummer became fluently bilingual. He apprenticed with the Montréal Repertory Theatre with fellow Montréaler and future Captain Kirk, William Shatner. Plummer made his professional debut in 1948 with Ottawa's Stage Society, performing over 100 roles with its successor, the Canadian Repertory Theatre. Between 1956 and 1967, he starred at Canada's Stratford Festival, playing Henry V, Hamlet, Mercutio, Leontes, Macbeth, Cyrano de Bergerac and Marc Antony, as well as other roles. In a career that spans 7 decades, Plummer has won numerous awards and accolades for his work, including an Academy Award, two Emmy Awards, two Tony Awards, a Golden Globe Award, a SAG Award, and a BAFTA Award.
Famous Theatre Roles: Pizarro in The Royal Hunt of the Sun (1965); the title roles in the musical Cyrano (1973) and the one-man play Barrymore (1996-98 and again in 2011), both of which garnered him Tony Awards; Iago in Othello (1981-82); Macbeth (1988); No Man's Land (1995); King Lear (2004)
Actor Profile: Paul Gross
Birthday: April 30, 1959
Place of Birth: Calgary, Alberta
Paul Gross is a contemporary Canadian actor, producer, screenwriter, composer and director. He studied acting at the University of Alberta in Edmonton. He began his acting career with appearances in several stage productions. He is known for his lead role as Constable Benton Fraser in the television series Due South, as well as his 2008 war film Passchendaele. Gross has received numerous awards for his contributions to film, television and theatre.
Famous Theatre Roles: Sylvius in As You Like It (1981); Lysander in A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1981); Clarence Underhill in Walsh (1982-83); Romeo in Romeo and Juliet (1985); Young Kenneth Pyper in Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme (1988); Hamlet in Hamlet (2000); Elyot in Private Lives (2011)
Actress Profile: Geneviève Bujold
Birthday: July 1, 1942
Place of Birth: Montreal, Quebec
Geneviève Bujold is a Canadian actress who works primarily in Canadian and U.S. films and TV series. Bujold received a strict convent education for 12 years before entering Montreal's Conservatory of Dramatic Art, where she was trained in the great classics of French theatre. She made her stage debut as Rosine in Le Barbier de Séville. Throughout her film career, she has won several awards. Bujold is best known for her portrayal of Anne Boleyn in the 1969 film Anne of the Thousand Days, for which she won a Golden Globe award for Best Actress and an Academy Award nomination in the same category.
Famous Theatre Roles: La guerre est finie (1966), Le Roi de Cœur
(1966), Le voleur (1967)
Actress Profile: Sara Topham
Place of Birth: Victoria, British Columbia
Sara Topham is a Canadian actress primarily associated with stage roles at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. She graduated from drama school at the University of Victoria in 1998. Topham has played several major stage roles over the course of 12 years (2000 to 2011) at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, specializing in "ingénue"-type figures in comedies and also sensitive and vulnerable types in dramas.
Famous Theatre Roles: Diana in All’s Well That Ends Well (2002); Cassandra in Agamemnon (2003); Laura in The Glass Menagerie (2006); Mabel in An Ideal Husband (2007); Gwendolyn in The Importance of Being Earnest (2009); Olivia in Twelfth Night (2011)
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